How long should water be boiled to effectively kill most pathogens in polluted water?

Boiling water is a recognized method for effectively killing a wide range of pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, and parasites that might be present in polluted water. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends boiling water for at least one minute to ensure that it reaches a sufficient temperature to eliminate pathogens.

At higher altitudes, where water boils at a lower temperature, it is recommended to boil for at least three minutes to ensure safety. However, for general situations at sea level, boiling for one to two minutes is adequate, effectively destroying most harmful organisms that could cause disease.

Choosing a duration of one to two minutes aligns with established public health guidelines, ensuring the water is safe for consumption. Other options like five to ten minutes or three to four minutes are more cautious than necessary for routine water safety under typical conditions, while boiling for only 30 seconds may not guarantee the complete destruction of all potential pathogens.